This is Info file f/g77.info, produced by Makeinfo version 1.68 from
the input file ../../gcc/f/g77.texi.

   This file explains how to use the GNU Fortran system.

   Published by the Free Software Foundation 59 Temple Place - Suite 330
Boston, MA 02111-1307 USA

   Copyright (C) 1995-1997 Free Software Foundation, Inc.

   Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
preserved on all copies.

   Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also
that the sections entitled "GNU General Public License," "Funding for
Free Software," and "Protect Your Freedom--Fight `Look And Feel'" are
included exactly as in the original, and provided that the entire
resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission
notice identical to this one.

   Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
versions, except that the sections entitled "GNU General Public
License," "Funding for Free Software," and "Protect Your Freedom--Fight
`Look And Feel'", and this permission notice, may be included in
translations approved by the Free Software Foundation instead of in the
original English.

   Contributed by James Craig Burley (<craig@jcb-sc.com>).  Inspired by
a first pass at translating `g77-0.5.16/f/DOC' that was contributed to
Craig by David Ronis (<ronis@onsager.chem.mcgill.ca>).

INFO-DIR-SECTION Programming
START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
* g77: (g77).                  The GNU Fortran compiler.
END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY


File: g77.info,  Node: Complex Variables,  Next: Arrays,  Prev: Local Equivalence Areas,  Up: Debugging and Interfacing

Complex Variables (COMPLEX)
===========================

   As of 0.5.20, `g77' defaults to handling `COMPLEX' types (and
related intrinsics, constants, functions, and so on) in a manner that
makes direct debugging involving these types in Fortran language mode
difficult.

   Essentially, `g77' implements these types using an internal
construct similar to C's `struct', at least as seen by the `gcc' back
end.

   Currently, the back end, when outputting debugging info with the
compiled code for the assembler to digest, does not detect these
`struct' types as being substitutes for Fortran complex.  As a result,
the Fortran language modes of debuggers such as `gdb' see these types
as C `struct' types, which they might or might not support.

   Until this is fixed, switch to C language mode to work with entities
of `COMPLEX' type and then switch back to Fortran language mode
afterward.  (In `gdb', this is accomplished via `set lang c' and either
`set lang fortran' or `set lang auto'.)

   *Note:* Compiling with the `-fno-emulate-complex' option avoids the
debugging problem, but is known to cause other problems like compiler
crashes and generation of incorrect code, so it is not recommended.


File: g77.info,  Node: Arrays,  Next: Adjustable Arrays,  Prev: Complex Variables,  Up: Debugging and Interfacing

Arrays (DIMENSION)
==================

   Fortran uses "column-major ordering" in its arrays.  This differs
from other languages, such as C, which use "row-major ordering".  The
difference is that, with Fortran, array elements adjacent to each other
in memory differ in the *first* subscript instead of the last;
`A(5,10,20)' immediately follows `A(4,10,20)', whereas with row-major
ordering it would follow `A(5,10,19)'.

   This consideration affects not only interfacing with and debugging
Fortran code, it can greatly affect how code is designed and written,
especially when code speed and size is a concern.

   Fortran also differs from C, a popular language for interfacing and
to support directly in debuggers, in the way arrays are treated.  In C,
arrays are single-dimensional and have interesting relationships to
pointers, neither of which is true for Fortran.  As a result, dealing
with Fortran arrays from within an environment limited to C concepts
can be challenging.

   For example, accessing the array element `A(5,10,20)' is easy enough
in Fortran (use `A(5,10,20)'), but in C some difficult machinations are
needed.  First, C would treat the A array as a single-dimension array.
Second, C does not understand low bounds for arrays as does Fortran.
Third, C assumes a low bound of zero (0), while Fortran defaults to a
low bound of one (1) and can supports an arbitrary low bound.
Therefore, calculations must be done to determine what the C equivalent
of `A(5,10,20)' would be, and these calculations require knowing the
dimensions of `A'.

   For `DIMENSION A(2:11,21,0:29)', the calculation of the offset of
`A(5,10,20)' would be:

       (5-2)
     + (10-1)*(11-2+1)
     + (20-0)*(11-2+1)*(21-1+1)
     = 4293

So the C equivalent in this case would be `a[4293]'.

   When using a debugger directly on Fortran code, the C equivalent
might not work, because some debuggers cannot understand the notion of
low bounds other than zero.  However, unlike `f2c', `g77' does inform
the GBE that a multi-dimensional array (like `A' in the above example)
is really multi-dimensional, rather than a single-dimensional array, so
at least the dimensionality of the array is preserved.

   Debuggers that understand Fortran should have no trouble with
non-zero low bounds, but for non-Fortran debuggers, especially C
debuggers, the above example might have a C equivalent of `a[4305]'.
This calculation is arrived at by eliminating the subtraction of the
lower bound in the first parenthesized expression on each line--that
is, for `(5-2)' substitute `(5)', for `(10-1)' substitute `(10)', and
for `(20-0)' substitute `(20)'.  Actually, the implication of this can
be that the expression `*(&a[2][1][0] + 4293)' works fine, but that
`a[20][10][5]' produces the equivalent of `*(&a[0][0][0] + 4305)'
because of the missing lower bounds.

   Come to think of it, perhaps the behavior is due to the debugger
internally compensating for the lower bounds by offsetting the base
address of `a', leaving `&a' set lower, in this case, than
`&a[2][1][0]' (the address of its first element as identified by
subscripts equal to the corresponding lower bounds).

   You know, maybe nobody really needs to use arrays.


File: g77.info,  Node: Adjustable Arrays,  Next: Alternate Entry Points,  Prev: Arrays,  Up: Debugging and Interfacing

Adjustable Arrays (DIMENSION)
=============================

   Adjustable and automatic arrays in Fortran require the implementation
(in this case, the `g77' compiler) to "memorize" the expressions that
dimension the arrays each time the procedure is invoked.  This is so
that subsequent changes to variables used in those expressions, made
during execution of the procedure, do not have any effect on the
dimensions of those arrays.

   For example:

     REAL ARRAY(5)
     DATA ARRAY/5*2/
     CALL X(ARRAY, 5)
     END
     SUBROUTINE X(A, N)
     DIMENSION A(N)
     N = 20
     PRINT *, N, A
     END

Here, the implementation should, when running the program, print
something like:

     20   2.  2.  2.  2.  2.

Note that this shows that while the value of `N' was successfully
changed, the size of the `A' array remained at 5 elements.

   To support this, `g77' generates code that executes before any user
code (and before the internally generated computed `GOTO' to handle
alternate entry points, as described below) that evaluates each
(nonconstant) expression in the list of subscripts for an array, and
saves the result of each such evaluation to be used when determining
the size of the array (instead of re-evaluating the expressions).

   So, in the above example, when `X' is first invoked, code is
executed that copies the value of `N' to a temporary.  And that same
temporary serves as the actual high bound for the single dimension of
the `A' array (the low bound being the constant 1).  Since the user
program cannot (legitimately) change the value of the temporary during
execution of the procedure, the size of the array remains constant
during each invocation.

   For alternate entry points, the code `g77' generates takes into
account the possibility that a dummy adjustable array is not actually
passed to the actual entry point being invoked at that time.  In that
case, the public procedure implementing the entry point passes to the
master private procedure implementing all the code for the entry points
a `NULL' pointer where a pointer to that adjustable array would be
expected.  The `g77'-generated code doesn't attempt to evaluate any of
the expressions in the subscripts for an array if the pointer to that
array is `NULL' at run time in such cases.  (Don't depend on this
particular implementation by writing code that purposely passes `NULL'
pointers where the callee expects adjustable arrays, even if you know
the callee won't reference the arrays--nor should you pass `NULL'
pointers for any dummy arguments used in calculating the bounds of such
arrays or leave undefined any values used for that purpose in
COMMON--because the way `g77' implements these things might change in
the future!)


File: g77.info,  Node: Alternate Entry Points,  Next: Alternate Returns,  Prev: Adjustable Arrays,  Up: Debugging and Interfacing

Alternate Entry Points (ENTRY)
==============================

   The GBE does not understand the general concept of alternate entry
points as Fortran provides via the ENTRY statement.  `g77' gets around
this by using an approach to compiling procedures having at least one
`ENTRY' statement that is almost identical to the approach used by
`f2c'.  (An alternate approach could be used that would probably
generate faster, but larger, code that would also be a bit easier to
debug.)

   Information on how `g77' implements `ENTRY' is provided for those
trying to debug such code.  The choice of implementation seems unlikely
to affect code (compiled in other languages) that interfaces to such
code.

   `g77' compiles exactly one public procedure for the primary entry
point of a procedure plus each `ENTRY' point it specifies, as usual.
That is, in terms of the public interface, there is no difference
between

     SUBROUTINE X
     END
     SUBROUTINE Y
     END

and:

     SUBROUTINE X
     ENTRY Y
     END

   The difference between the above two cases lies in the code compiled
for the `X' and `Y' procedures themselves, plus the fact that, for the
second case, an extra internal procedure is compiled.

   For every Fortran procedure with at least one `ENTRY' statement,
`g77' compiles an extra procedure named `__g77_masterfun_X', where X is
the name of the primary entry point (which, in the above case, using
the standard compiler options, would be `x_' in C).

   This extra procedure is compiled as a private procedure--that is, a
procedure not accessible by name to separately compiled modules.  It
contains all the code in the program unit, including the code for the
primary entry point plus for every entry point.  (The code for each
public procedure is quite short, and explained later.)

   The extra procedure has some other interesting characteristics.

   The argument list for this procedure is invented by `g77'.  It
contains a single integer argument named `__g77_which_entrypoint',
passed by value (as in Fortran's `%VAL()' intrinsic), specifying the
entry point index--0 for the primary entry point, 1 for the first entry
point (the first `ENTRY' statement encountered), 2 for the second entry
point, and so on.

   It also contains, for functions returning `CHARACTER' and (when
`-ff2c' is in effect) `COMPLEX' functions, and for functions returning
different types among the `ENTRY' statements (e.g. `REAL FUNCTION R()'
containing `ENTRY I()'), an argument named `__g77_result' that is
expected at run time to contain a pointer to where to store the result
of the entry point.  For `CHARACTER' functions, this storage area is an
array of the appropriate number of characters; for `COMPLEX' functions,
it is the appropriate area for the return type; for
multiple-return-type functions, it is a union of all the supported
return types (which cannot include `CHARACTER', since combining
`CHARACTER' and non-`CHARACTER' return types via `ENTRY' in a single
function is not supported by `g77').

   For `CHARACTER' functions, the `__g77_result' argument is followed
by yet another argument named `__g77_length' that, at run time,
specifies the caller's expected length of the returned value.  Note
that only `CHARACTER*(*)' functions and entry points actually make use
of this argument, even though it is always passed by all callers of
public `CHARACTER' functions (since the caller does not generally know
whether such a function is `CHARACTER*(*)' or whether there are any
other callers that don't have that information).

   The rest of the argument list is the union of all the arguments
specified for all the entry points (in their usual forms, e.g.
`CHARACTER' arguments have extra length arguments, all appended at the
end of this list).  This is considered the "master list" of arguments.

   The code for this procedure has, before the code for the first
executable statement, code much like that for the following Fortran
statement:

            GOTO (100000,100001,100002), __g77_which_entrypoint
     100000 ...code for primary entry point...
     100001 ...code immediately following first ENTRY statement...
     100002 ...code immediately following second ENTRY statement...

(Note that invalid Fortran statement labels and variable names are used
in the above example to highlight the fact that it represents code
generated by the `g77' internals, not code to be written by the user.)

   It is this code that, when the procedure is called, picks which
entry point to start executing.

   Getting back to the public procedures (`x' and `Y' in the original
example), those procedures are fairly simple.  Their interfaces are
just like they would be if they were self-contained procedures (without
`ENTRY'), of course, since that is what the callers expect.  Their code
consists of simply calling the private procedure, described above, with
the appropriate extra arguments (the entry point index, and perhaps a
pointer to a multiple-type- return variable, local to the public
procedure, that contains all the supported returnable non-character
types).  For arguments that are not listed for a given entry point that
are listed for other entry points, and therefore that are in the
"master list" for the private procedure, null pointers (in C, the
`NULL' macro) are passed.  Also, for entry points that are part of a
multiple-type- returning function, code is compiled after the call of
the private procedure to extract from the multi-type union the
appropriate result, depending on the type of the entry point in
question, returning that result to the original caller.

   When debugging a procedure containing alternate entry points, you
can either set a break point on the public procedure itself (e.g.  a
break point on `X' or `Y') or on the private procedure that contains
most of the pertinent code (e.g. `__g77_masterfun_X').  If you do the
former, you should use the debugger's command to "step into" the called
procedure to get to the actual code; with the latter approach, the
break point leaves you right at the actual code, skipping over the
public entry point and its call to the private procedure (unless you
have set a break point there as well, of course).

   Further, the list of dummy arguments that is visible when the
private procedure is active is going to be the expanded version of the
list for whichever particular entry point is active, as explained
above, and the way in which return values are handled might well be
different from how they would be handled for an equivalent single-entry
function.


File: g77.info,  Node: Alternate Returns,  Next: Assigned Statement Labels,  Prev: Alternate Entry Points,  Up: Debugging and Interfacing

Alternate Returns (SUBROUTINE and RETURN)
=========================================

   Subroutines with alternate returns (e.g. `SUBROUTINE X(*)' and `CALL
X(*50)') are implemented by `g77' as functions returning the C `int'
type.  The actual alternate-return arguments are omitted from the
calling sequence.  Instead, the caller uses the return value to do a
rough equivalent of the Fortran computed-`GOTO' statement, as in `GOTO
(50), X()' in the example above (where `X' is quietly declared as an
`INTEGER(KIND=1)' function), and the callee just returns whatever
integer is specified in the `RETURN' statement for the subroutine For
example, `RETURN 1' is implemented as `X = 1' followed by `RETURN' in
C, and `RETURN' by itself is `X = 0' and `RETURN').


File: g77.info,  Node: Assigned Statement Labels,  Next: Run-time Library Errors,  Prev: Alternate Returns,  Up: Debugging and Interfacing

Assigned Statement Labels (ASSIGN and GOTO)
===========================================

   For portability to machines where a pointer (such as to a label,
which is how `g77' implements `ASSIGN' and its relatives, the
assigned-`GOTO' and assigned-`FORMAT'-I/O statements) is wider
(bitwise) than an `INTEGER(KIND=1)', `g77' uses a different memory
location to hold the `ASSIGN'ed value of a variable than it does the
numerical value in that variable, unless the variable is wide enough
(can hold enough bits).

   In particular, while `g77' implements

     I = 10

as, in C notation, `i = 10;', it implements

     ASSIGN 10 TO I

as, in GNU's extended C notation (for the label syntax),
`__g77_ASSIGN_I = &&L10;' (where `L10' is just a massaging of the
Fortran label `10' to make the syntax C-like; `g77' doesn't actually
generate the name `L10' or any other name like that, since debuggers
cannot access labels anyway).

   While this currently means that an `ASSIGN' statement does not
overwrite the numeric contents of its target variable, *do not* write
any code depending on this feature.  `g77' has already changed this
implementation across versions and might do so in the future.  This
information is provided only to make debugging Fortran programs
compiled with the current version of `g77' somewhat easier.  If there's
no debugger-visible variable named `__g77_ASSIGN_I' in a program unit
that does `ASSIGN 10 TO I', that probably means `g77' has decided it
can store the pointer to the label directly into `I' itself.

   *Note Ugly Assigned Labels::, for information on a command-line
option to force `g77' to use the same storage for both normal and
assigned-label uses of a variable.


File: g77.info,  Node: Run-time Library Errors,  Prev: Assigned Statement Labels,  Up: Debugging and Interfacing

Run-time Library Errors
=======================

   The `libg2c' library currently has the following table to relate
error code numbers, returned in `IOSTAT=' variables, to messages.  This
information should, in future versions of this document, be expanded
upon to include detailed descriptions of each message.

   In line with good coding practices, any of the numbers in the list
below should *not* be directly written into Fortran code you write.
Instead, make a separate `INCLUDE' file that defines `PARAMETER' names
for them, and use those in your code, so you can more easily change the
actual numbers in the future.

   The information below is culled from the definition of `F_err' in
`f/runtime/libI77/err.c' in the `g77' source tree.

     100: "error in format"
     101: "illegal unit number"
     102: "formatted io not allowed"
     103: "unformatted io not allowed"
     104: "direct io not allowed"
     105: "sequential io not allowed"
     106: "can't backspace file"
     107: "null file name"
     108: "can't stat file"
     109: "unit not connected"
     110: "off end of record"
     111: "truncation failed in endfile"
     112: "incomprehensible list input"
     113: "out of free space"
     114: "unit not connected"
     115: "read unexpected character"
     116: "bad logical input field"
     117: "bad variable type"
     118: "bad namelist name"
     119: "variable not in namelist"
     120: "no end record"
     121: "variable count incorrect"
     122: "subscript for scalar variable"
     123: "invalid array section"
     124: "substring out of bounds"
     125: "subscript out of bounds"
     126: "can't read file"
     127: "can't write file"
     128: "'new' file exists"
     129: "can't append to file"
     130: "non-positive record number"
     131: "I/O started while already doing I/O"


File: g77.info,  Node: Collected Fortran Wisdom,  Next: Trouble,  Prev: Debugging and Interfacing,  Up: Top

Collected Fortran Wisdom
************************

   Most users of `g77' can be divided into two camps:

   * Those writing new Fortran code to be compiled by `g77'.

   * Those using `g77' to compile existing, "legacy" code.

   Users writing new code generally understand most of the necessary
aspects of Fortran to write "mainstream" code, but often need help
deciding how to handle problems, such as the construction of libraries
containing `BLOCK DATA'.

   Users dealing with "legacy" code sometimes don't have much
experience with Fortran, but believe that the code they're compiling
already works when compiled by other compilers (and might not
understand why, as is sometimes the case, it doesn't work when compiled
by `g77').

   The following information is designed to help users do a better job
coping with existing, "legacy" Fortran code, and with writing new code
as well.

* Menu:

* Advantages Over f2c::        If `f2c' is so great, why `g77'?
* Block Data and Libraries::   How `g77' solves a common problem.
* Loops::                      Fortran `DO' loops surprise many people.
* Working Programs::           Getting programs to work should be done first.
* Overly Convenient Options::  Temptations to avoid, habits to not form.
* Faster Programs::            Everybody wants these, but at what cost?


File: g77.info,  Node: Advantages Over f2c,  Next: Block Data and Libraries,  Up: Collected Fortran Wisdom

Advantages Over f2c
===================

   Without `f2c', `g77' would have taken much longer to do and probably
not been as good for quite a while.  Sometimes people who notice how
much `g77' depends on, and documents encouragement to use, `f2c' ask
why `g77' was created if `f2c' already existed.

   This section gives some basic answers to these questions, though it
is not intended to be comprehensive.

* Menu:

* Language Extensions::  Features used by Fortran code.
* Compiler Options::     Features helpful during development.
* Compiler Speed::       Speed of the compilation process.
* Program Speed::        Speed of the generated, optimized code.
* Ease of Debugging::    Debugging ease-of-use at the source level.
* Character and Hollerith Constants::  A byte saved is a byte earned.


File: g77.info,  Node: Language Extensions,  Next: Compiler Options,  Up: Advantages Over f2c

Language Extensions
-------------------

   `g77' offers several extensions to the Fortran language that `f2c'
doesn't.

   However, `f2c' offers a few that `g77' doesn't, like fairly complete
support for `INTEGER*2'.  It is expected that `g77' will offer some or
all of these missing features at some time in the future.  (Version
0.5.18 of `g77' offers some rudimentary support for some of these
features.)


File: g77.info,  Node: Compiler Options,  Next: Compiler Speed,  Prev: Language Extensions,  Up: Advantages Over f2c

Compiler Options
----------------

   `g77' offers a whole bunch of compiler options that `f2c' doesn't.

   However, `f2c' offers a few that `g77' doesn't, like an option to
generate code to check array subscripts at run time.  It is expected
that `g77' will offer some or all of these missing options at some time
in the future.


File: g77.info,  Node: Compiler Speed,  Next: Program Speed,  Prev: Compiler Options,  Up: Advantages Over f2c

Compiler Speed
--------------

   Saving the steps of writing and then rereading C code is a big reason
why `g77' should be able to compile code much faster than using `f2c'
in conjunction with the equivalent invocation of `gcc'.

   However, due to `g77''s youth, lots of self-checking is still being
performed.  As a result, this improvement is as yet unrealized (though
the potential seems to be there for quite a big speedup in the future).
It is possible that, as of version 0.5.18, `g77' is noticeably faster
compiling many Fortran source files than using `f2c' in conjunction
with `gcc'.


File: g77.info,  Node: Program Speed,  Next: Ease of Debugging,  Prev: Compiler Speed,  Up: Advantages Over f2c

Program Speed
-------------

   `g77' has the potential to better optimize code than `f2c', even
when `gcc' is used to compile the output of `f2c', because `f2c' must
necessarily translate Fortran into a somewhat lower-level language (C)
that cannot preserve all the information that is potentially useful for
optimization, while `g77' can gather, preserve, and transmit that
information directly to the GBE.

   For example, `g77' implements `ASSIGN' and assigned `GOTO' using
direct assignment of pointers to labels and direct jumps to labels,
whereas `f2c' maps the assigned labels to integer values and then uses
a C `switch' statement to encode the assigned `GOTO' statements.

   However, as is typical, theory and reality don't quite match, at
least not in all cases, so it is still the case that `f2c' plus `gcc'
can generate code that is faster than `g77'.

   Version 0.5.18 of `g77' offered default settings and options, via
patches to the `gcc' back end, that allow for better program speed,
though some of these improvements also affected the performance of
programs translated by `f2c' and then compiled by `g77''s version of
`gcc'.

   Version 0.5.20 of `g77' offers further performance improvements, at
least one of which (alias analysis) is not generally applicable to
`f2c' (though `f2c' could presumably be changed to also take advantage
of this new capability of the `gcc' back end, assuming this is made
available in an upcoming release of `gcc').


File: g77.info,  Node: Ease of Debugging,  Next: Character and Hollerith Constants,  Prev: Program Speed,  Up: Advantages Over f2c

Ease of Debugging
-----------------

   Because `g77' compiles directly to assembler code like `gcc',
instead of translating to an intermediate language (C) as does `f2c',
support for debugging can be better for `g77' than `f2c'.

   However, although `g77' might be somewhat more "native" in terms of
debugging support than `f2c' plus `gcc', there still are a lot of
things "not quite right".  Many of the important ones should be
resolved in the near future.

   For example, `g77' doesn't have to worry about reserved names like
`f2c' does.  Given `FOR = WHILE', `f2c' must necessarily translate this
to something *other* than `for = while;', because C reserves those
words.

   However, `g77' does still uses things like an extra level of
indirection for `ENTRY'-laden procedures--in this case, because the
back end doesn't yet support multiple entry points.

   Another example is that, given

     COMMON A, B
     EQUIVALENCE (B, C)

the `g77' user should be able to access the variables directly, by name,
without having to traverse C-like structures and unions, while `f2c' is
unlikely to ever offer this ability (due to limitations in the C
language).

   However, due to apparent bugs in the back end, `g77' currently
doesn't take advantage of this facility at all--it doesn't emit any
debugging information for `COMMON' and `EQUIVALENCE' areas, other than
information on the array of `char' it creates (and, in the case of
local `EQUIVALENCE', names) for each such area.

   Yet another example is arrays.  `g77' represents them to the debugger
using the same "dimensionality" as in the source code, while `f2c' must
necessarily convert them all to one-dimensional arrays to fit into the
confines of the C language.  However, the level of support offered by
debuggers for interactive Fortran-style access to arrays as compiled by
`g77' can vary widely.  In some cases, it can actually be an advantage
that `f2c' converts everything to widely supported C semantics.

   In fairness, `g77' could do many of the things `f2c' does to get
things working at least as well as `f2c'--for now, the developers
prefer making `g77' work the way they think it is supposed to, and
finding help improving the other products (the back end of `gcc';
`gdb'; and so on) to get things working properly.


File: g77.info,  Node: Character and Hollerith Constants,  Prev: Ease of Debugging,  Up: Advantages Over f2c

Character and Hollerith Constants
---------------------------------

   To avoid the extensive hassle that would be needed to avoid this,
`f2c' uses C character constants to encode character and Hollerith
constants.  That means a constant like `'HELLO'' is translated to
`"hello"' in C, which further means that an extra null byte is present
at the end of the constant.  This null byte is superfluous.

   `g77' does not generate such null bytes.  This represents significant
savings of resources, such as on systems where `/dev/null' or
`/dev/zero' represent bottlenecks in the systems' performance, because
`g77' simply asks for fewer zeros from the operating system than `f2c'.
(Avoiding spurious use of zero bytes, each byte typically have eight
zero bits, also reduces the liabilities in case Microsoft's rumored
patent on the digits 0 and 1 is upheld.)


File: g77.info,  Node: Block Data and Libraries,  Next: Loops,  Prev: Advantages Over f2c,  Up: Collected Fortran Wisdom

Block Data and Libraries
========================

   To ensure that block data program units are linked, especially a
concern when they are put into libraries, give each one a name (as in
`BLOCK DATA FOO') and make sure there is an `EXTERNAL FOO' statement in
every program unit that uses any common block initialized by the
corresponding `BLOCK DATA'.  `g77' currently compiles a `BLOCK DATA' as
if it were a `SUBROUTINE', that is, it generates an actual procedure
having the appropriate name.  The procedure does nothing but return
immediately if it happens to be called.  For `EXTERNAL FOO', where
`FOO' is not otherwise referenced in the same program unit, `g77'
assumes there exists a `BLOCK DATA FOO' in the program and ensures that
by generating a reference to it so the linker will make sure it is
present.  (Specifically, `g77' outputs in the data section a static
pointer to the external name `FOO'.)

   The implementation `g77' currently uses to make this work is one of
the few things not compatible with `f2c' as currently shipped.  `f2c'
currently does nothing with `EXTERNAL FOO' except issue a warning that
`FOO' is not otherwise referenced, and, for `BLOCK DATA FOO', `f2c'
doesn't generate a dummy procedure with the name `FOO'.  The upshot is
that you shouldn't mix `f2c' and `g77' in this particular case.  If you
use `f2c' to compile `BLOCK DATA FOO', then any `g77'-compiled program
unit that says `EXTERNAL FOO' will result in an unresolved reference
when linked.  If you do the opposite, then `FOO' might not be linked in
under various circumstances (such as when `FOO' is in a library, or
you're using a "clever" linker--so clever, it produces a broken program
with little or no warning by omitting initializations of global data
because they are contained in unreferenced procedures).

   The changes you make to your code to make `g77' handle this
situation, however, appear to be a widely portable way to handle it.
That is, many systems permit it (as they should, since the FORTRAN 77
standard permits `EXTERNAL FOO' when `FOO' is a block data program
unit), and of the ones that might not link `BLOCK DATA FOO' under some
circumstances, most of them appear to do so once `EXTERNAL FOO' is
present in the appropriate program units.

   Here is the recommended approach to modifying a program containing a
program unit such as the following:

     BLOCK DATA FOO
     COMMON /VARS/ X, Y, Z
     DATA X, Y, Z / 3., 4., 5. /
     END

If the above program unit might be placed in a library module, then
ensure that every program unit in every program that references that
particular `COMMON' area uses the `EXTERNAL' statement to force the
area to be initialized.

   For example, change a program unit that starts with

     INTEGER FUNCTION CURX()
     COMMON /VARS/ X, Y, Z
     CURX = X
     END

so that it uses the `EXTERNAL' statement, as in:

     INTEGER FUNCTION CURX()
     COMMON /VARS/ X, Y, Z
     EXTERNAL FOO
     CURX = X
     END

That way, `CURX' is compiled by `g77' (and many other compilers) so
that the linker knows it must include `FOO', the `BLOCK DATA' program
unit that sets the initial values for the variables in `VAR', in the
executable program.


File: g77.info,  Node: Loops,  Next: Working Programs,  Prev: Block Data and Libraries,  Up: Collected Fortran Wisdom

Loops
=====

   The meaning of a `DO' loop in Fortran is precisely specified in the
Fortran standard...and is quite different from what many programmers
might expect.

   In particular, Fortran indexed `DO' loops are implemented as if the
number of trips through the loop is calculated *before* the loop is
entered.

   The number of trips for a loop is calculated from the START, END,
and INCREMENT values specified in a statement such as:

     DO ITER = START, END, INCREMENT

The trip count is evaluated using a fairly simple formula based on the
three values following the `=' in the statement, and it is that trip
count that is effectively decremented during each iteration of the loop.
If, at the beginning of an iteration of the loop, the trip count is
zero or negative, the loop terminates.  The per-loop-iteration
modifications to ITER are not related to determining whether to
terminate the loop.

   There are two important things to remember about the trip count:

   * It can be *negative*, in which case it is treated as if it was
     zero--meaning the loop is not executed at all.

   * The type used to *calculate* the trip count is the same type as
     ITER, but the final calculation, and thus the type of the trip
     count itself, always is `INTEGER(KIND=1)'.

   These two items mean that there are loops that cannot be written in
straightforward fashion using the Fortran `DO'.

   For example, on a system with the canonical 32-bit two's-complement
implementation of `INTEGER(KIND=1)', the following loop will not work:

     DO I = -2000000000, 2000000000

Although the START and END values are well within the range of
`INTEGER(KIND=1)', the *trip count* is not.  The expected trip count is
40000000001, which is outside the range of `INTEGER(KIND=1)' on many
systems.

   Instead, the above loop should be constructed this way:

     I = -2000000000
     DO
       IF (I .GT. 2000000000) EXIT
       ...
       I = I + 1
     END DO

The simple `DO' construct and the `EXIT' statement (used to leave the
innermost loop) are F90 features that `g77' supports.

   Some Fortran compilers have buggy implementations of `DO', in that
they don't follow the standard.  They implement `DO' as a
straightforward translation to what, in C, would be a `for' statement.
Instead of creating a temporary variable to hold the trip count as
calculated at run time, these compilers use the iteration variable ITER
to control whether the loop continues at each iteration.

   The bug in such an implementation shows up when the trip count is
within the range of the type of ITER, but the magnitude of `ABS(END) +
ABS(INCR)' exceeds that range.  For example:

     DO I = 2147483600, 2147483647

A loop started by the above statement will work as implemented by
`g77', but the use, by some compilers, of a more C-like implementation
akin to

     for (i = 2147483600; i <= 2147483647; ++i)

produces a loop that does not terminate, because `i' can never be
greater than 2147483647, since incrementing it beyond that value
overflows `i', setting it to -2147483648.  This is a large, negative
number that still is less than 2147483647.

   Another example of unexpected behavior of `DO' involves using a
nonintegral iteration variable ITER, that is, a `REAL' variable.
Consider the following program:

           DATA BEGIN, END, STEP /.1, .31, .007/
           DO 10 R = BEGIN, END, STEP
              IF (R .GT. END) PRINT *, R, ' .GT. ', END, '!!'
              PRINT *,R
     10    CONTINUE
           PRINT *,'LAST = ',R
           IF (R .LE. END) PRINT *, R, ' .LE. ', END, '!!'
           END

A C-like view of `DO' would hold that the two "exclamatory" `PRINT'
statements are never executed.  However, this is the output of running
the above program as compiled by `g77' on a GNU/Linux ix86 system:

      .100000001
      .107000001
      .114
      .120999999
      ...
      .289000005
      .296000004
      .303000003
     LAST =   .310000002
      .310000002 .LE.   .310000002!!

   Note that one of the two checks in the program turned up an apparent
violation of the programmer's expectation--yet, the loop is correctly
implemented by `g77', in that it has 30 iterations.  This trip count of
30 is correct when evaluated using the floating-point representations
for the BEGIN, END, and INCR values (.1, .31, .007) on GNU/Linux ix86
are used.  On other systems, an apparently more accurate trip count of
31 might result, but, nevertheless, `g77' is faithfully following the
Fortran standard, and the result is not what the author of the sample
program above apparently expected.  (Such other systems might, for
different values in the `DATA' statement, violate the other
programmer's expectation, for example.)

   Due to this combination of imprecise representation of
floating-point values and the often-misunderstood interpretation of
`DO' by standard-conforming compilers such as `g77', use of `DO' loops
with `REAL' iteration variables is not recommended.  Such use can be
caught by specifying `-Wsurprising'.  *Note Warning Options::, for more
information on this option.


File: g77.info,  Node: Working Programs,  Next: Overly Convenient Options,  Prev: Loops,  Up: Collected Fortran Wisdom

Working Programs
================

   Getting Fortran programs to work in the first place can be quite a
challenge--even when the programs already work on other systems, or
when using other compilers.

   `g77' offers some facilities that might be useful for tracking down
bugs in such programs.

* Menu:

* Not My Type::
* Variables Assumed To Be Zero::
* Variables Assumed To Be Saved::
* Unwanted Variables::
* Unused Arguments::
* Surprising Interpretations of Code::
* Aliasing Assumed To Work::
* Output Assumed To Flush::
* Large File Unit Numbers::
* Floating point precision::
* Inconsistent Calling Sequences::


File: g77.info,  Node: Not My Type,  Next: Variables Assumed To Be Zero,  Up: Working Programs

Not My Type
-----------

   A fruitful source of bugs in Fortran source code is use, or mis-use,
of Fortran's implicit-typing feature, whereby the type of a variable,
array, or function is determined by the first character of its name.

   Simple cases of this include statements like `LOGX=9.227', without a
statement such as `REAL LOGX'.  In this case, `LOGX' is implicitly
given `INTEGER(KIND=1)' type, with the result of the assignment being
that it is given the value `9'.

   More involved cases include a function that is defined starting with
a statement like `DOUBLE PRECISION FUNCTION IPS(...)'.  Any caller of
this function that does not also declare `IPS' as type `DOUBLE
PRECISION' (or, in GNU Fortran, `REAL(KIND=2)') is likely to assume it
returns `INTEGER', or some other type, leading to invalid results or
even program crashes.

   The `-Wimplicit' option might catch failures to properly specify the
types of variables, arrays, and functions in the code.

   However, in code that makes heavy use of Fortran's implicit-typing
facility, this option might produce so many warnings about cases that
are working, it would be hard to find the one or two that represent
bugs.  This is why so many experienced Fortran programmers strongly
recommend widespread use of the `IMPLICIT NONE' statement, despite it
not being standard FORTRAN 77, to completely turn off implicit typing.
(`g77' supports `IMPLICIT NONE', as do almost all FORTRAN 77 compilers.)

   Note that `-Wimplicit' catches only implicit typing of *names*.  It
does not catch implicit typing of expressions such as `X**(2/3)'.  Such
expressions can be buggy as well--in fact, `X**(2/3)' is equivalent to
`X**0', due to the way Fortran expressions are given types and then
evaluated.  (In this particular case, the programmer probably wanted
`X**(2./3.)'.)


File: g77.info,  Node: Variables Assumed To Be Zero,  Next: Variables Assumed To Be Saved,  Prev: Not My Type,  Up: Working Programs

Variables Assumed To Be Zero
----------------------------

   Many Fortran programs were developed on systems that provided
automatic initialization of all, or some, variables and arrays to zero.
As a result, many of these programs depend, sometimes inadvertently, on
this behavior, though to do so violates the Fortran standards.

   You can ask `g77' for this behavior by specifying the
`-finit-local-zero' option when compiling Fortran code.  (You might
want to specify `-fno-automatic' as well, to avoid code-size inflation
for non-optimized compilations.)

   Note that a program that works better when compiled with the
`-finit-local-zero' option is almost certainly depending on a
particular system's, or compiler's, tendency to initialize some
variables to zero.  It might be worthwhile finding such cases and
fixing them, using techniques such as compiling with the `-O
-Wuninitialized' options using `g77'.


File: g77.info,  Node: Variables Assumed To Be Saved,  Next: Unwanted Variables,  Prev: Variables Assumed To Be Zero,  Up: Working Programs

Variables Assumed To Be Saved
-----------------------------

   Many Fortran programs were developed on systems that saved the
values of all, or some, variables and arrays across procedure calls.
As a result, many of these programs depend, sometimes inadvertently, on
being able to assign a value to a variable, perform a `RETURN' to a
calling procedure, and, upon subsequent invocation, reference the
previously assigned variable to obtain the value.

   They expect this despite not using the `SAVE' statement to specify
that the value in a variable is expected to survive procedure returns
and calls.  Depending on variables and arrays to retain values across
procedure calls without using `SAVE' to require it violates the Fortran
standards.

   You can ask `g77' to assume `SAVE' is specified for all relevant
(local) variables and arrays by using the `-fno-automatic' option.

   Note that a program that works better when compiled with the
`-fno-automatic' option is almost certainly depending on not having to
use the `SAVE' statement as required by the Fortran standard.  It might
be worthwhile finding such cases and fixing them, using techniques such
as compiling with the `-O -Wuninitialized' options using `g77'.


File: g77.info,  Node: Unwanted Variables,  Next: Unused Arguments,  Prev: Variables Assumed To Be Saved,  Up: Working Programs

Unwanted Variables
------------------

   The `-Wunused' option can find bugs involving implicit typing,
sometimes more easily than using `-Wimplicit' in code that makes heavy
use of implicit typing.  An unused variable or array might indicate
that the spelling for its declaration is different from that of its
intended uses.

   Other than cases involving typos, unused variables rarely indicate
actual bugs in a program.  However, investigating such cases thoroughly
has, on occasion, led to the discovery of code that had not been
completely written--where the programmer wrote declarations as needed
for the whole algorithm, wrote some or even most of the code for that
algorithm, then got distracted and forgot that the job was not complete.


File: g77.info,  Node: Unused Arguments,  Next: Surprising Interpretations of Code,  Prev: Unwanted Variables,  Up: Working Programs

Unused Arguments
----------------

   As with unused variables, It is possible that unused arguments to a
procedure might indicate a bug.  Compile with `-W -Wunused' option to
catch cases of unused arguments.

   Note that `-W' also enables warnings regarding overflow of
floating-point constants under certain circumstances.


File: g77.info,  Node: Surprising Interpretations of Code,  Next: Aliasing Assumed To Work,  Prev: Unused Arguments,  Up: Working Programs

Surprising Interpretations of Code
----------------------------------

   The `-Wsurprising' option can help find bugs involving expression
evaluation or in the way `DO' loops with non-integral iteration
variables are handled.  Cases found by this option might indicate a
difference of interpretation between the author of the code involved,
and a standard-conforming compiler such as `g77'.  Such a difference
might produce actual bugs.

   In any case, changing the code to explicitly do what the programmer
might have expected it to do, so `g77' and other compilers are more
likely to follow the programmer's expectations, might be worthwhile,
especially if such changes make the program work better.

